Skip to main content
Bulletin of the National Research Centre
Download PDF

Effect of foliar application of different concentrations of salicylic acid on Washington navel orange trees under water stress

Bulletin of the National Research Centre volume 47, Article number: 98 (2023) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

A field experiment was performed from 2021 to 2022 on 10-year-old Washington navel orange trees (Citrus sinensis) budded on sour orange rootstock (Citrus aurantium) under sandy loam soil conditions in the region of Belbeis—El Sharkia Governorate, Egypt. This study was carried out to increase water use efficiency, maximize water utilization and determine the most effective treatment of Washington navel orange trees by using different concentrations of salicylic acid (control, 250, 500, and 750 ppm) under some levels of water stress (100, 75 and 50% of estimated crop water requirement).

Results

In this scenario, the water use efficiency increased with 750 ppm of salicylic acid under 75% of the estimated crop water requirement, which produced 2.27 and 3.09 kg of fruit for each cubic meter of irrigation water in the first and second seasons, respectively. In addition, using salicylic acid treatment with 750 ppm under 75% of the estimated crop water requirement had a high economic return through increasing water unit return, while using less water irrigation amount by 25% at the same time, which reached 9.06 and 12.38 EGP per every cubic meter of irrigation water in the first and the second seasons, respectively.

Conclusion

In summary, the data cleared that the irrigation water quantity could reduce by 25% while maintaining the production and the possibility of increasing it by using salicylic acid with the highest concentration. Thus, we recommend applying the treatment of the estimated crop water requirement with 75% combined with salicylic acid 750 ppm to Washington navel orange trees budded on sour orange rootstock to gain a high economic return.

Background

Citrus is a sensitive crop to water scarcity, which is one of the major causes of low productivity and the decline of citrus orchards. Water deficit in citrus diminishes vegetative growth, yield, and sometimes quality, causing economic losses (Romero et al. 2006). In Egypt, citrus trees are the most important fruit crop. They have outstanding economic importance among fruit crops, particularly for exportation. The total area under citrus trees is 493,925 feddan,Footnote 1 of which 440,210 feddan is fruitful to produce 4,503,226 tons (38.73% of the total production of fruit trees) with an average of 10.23 tons per feddan. The total area of Washington orange trees is 152,806 feddan, of which 145,645 feddan is fruitful to produce 1,608,806 tons with an average of 11.05 tons per feddan (Ministry of Agriculture 2022). Previous studies under Egyptian conditions exhibited a wide range of irrigation rates needed for orange orchards that could sometimes reach 8000 m3/feddan/year or more (Abd-El Aziz 2004; Mahmoud 2012). The general trend in those studies showed that increasing irrigation rate caused promotions in many characteristics, which leads to an increment in both vegetative growth and fruiting as well as profitable yield (Wassel et al. 2007; Panigrahi and Strivastava 2011; Mahmoud 2012).

The River Nile, as a major source of water in Egypt (55.5 billion cubic meters), puts it under enormous pressure, especially because of the competitive situation with neighboring countries, many steps need to be taken to conserve both the quantity and quality of water, and appropriate strategies will have to be developed to avoid risk to future water supplies. Water irrigation accounts for over (40.2 billion cubic meters) 72.43% of the total water use in Egypt according to statistics from Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (2019), and then the main efficiency gains must come from reducing the amount of water used for irrigation.

One of the ways that can reduce the total water used for irrigation is to employ practices that improve crop yield per unit volume of water used (i.e., water productivity or water use efficiency) is using growth regulators like salicylic acid. The increasing number of studies in crop plants revealed a potential role of salicylic acid (SA) as a growth regulator and in the activation of abiotic stress tolerance apart from their role in biotic stress resistance. The endogenous level of salicylic acid in plants increased during abiotic stress (Saxena et al. 2019).

This study aimed to improve water use efficiency, maximize water utilization, and determine the most effective treatment of Washington navel orange trees by using different concentrations of salicylic acid (SA) (control, 250, 500, and 750 ppm) under some levels of water supply (100, 75, and 50% of ETc, i.e., estimated crop water requirement).

Methods

Material preparation and characterization

The present investigation has been carried out during two successive seasons (2021 and 2022) to improve water use efficiency and increase water unit return for citrus by studying the effect of salicylic acid (SA) (control, 250, 500, and 750 ppm) under different levels of water stress (100, 75, and 50% of estimated crop water requirement (ETc)) on growth, flowering, fruit set and yield of Washington navel orange trees (Citrus sinensis) budded on sour orange (Citrus aurantium) rootstock. The experimental trees were 10 years old and grown at 4 × 5 m in sandy loam soil under a drip irrigation system using River Nile water in a private orchard in Belbeis region, El Sharkia Governorate, Egypt.

All the trees in this study received the same horticultural practices except for experimental treatments. The experimental design was a split-plot arrangement of a randomized complete block with three replicates and two trees for each replicate. The main plot (first factor) comprised three irrigation levels (100, 75, and 50% of ETc), and the sub-plot (second factor) was salicylic acid (control, 250, 500, and 750 ppm), which were applied three times in every season in the first week of March, May, and July. The tested irrigation levels based on different rates of irrigation water, i.e., 4895, 3671, and 2451 m3/feddan/year for the first season and 4720, 3543, and 2362 m3/feddan/year for the second season as shown in Tables 1, 2 and Fig. 1. These values resulted from the CROPWAT (2012) version 8.0.1.1 computer program using the region meteorological data (2020 and 2021 years). Moreover, the estimated crop water requirement (ETc) is obtained by multiplying the specific crop coefficient (Kc) by reference evapotranspiration (ETo), i.e., ETc = ETo × Kc.

Table 1 Reference crop evapotranspiration rate (ETo) calculated with CROPWAT V.8.00 computer program from meteorological data under Sharkia Governorate conditions using FAO—Penman–Monteith equation according to Admasu et al. 2014 (season 2021)
Full size table
Table 2 Reference crop evapotranspiration rate (ETo) calculated with CROPWAT V.8.00 computer program from meteorological data under Sharkia Governorate conditions using FAO—Penman–Monteith equation according to Admasu et al. 2014 (season 2022)
Full size table
Fig. 1
figure 1

Monthly estimated crop water requirement (ETc) at the experimental site during the two growing seasons (2021 and 2022)

Full size image

The tested treatments were evaluated through the following parameters

Tree volume leaf area and roots behavior (length of fibrous roots)

The tree height (m), tree circumference (m), and tree canopy volume (m3) were determined in both investigation seasons. The tree canopy volume was calculated according to the following equation: canopy volume (m3) = 1.33 × 0.5 × circumference (m) × 3.14 × 0.5 × height (m) (Turell 1965). Tree volume increment had been calculated by subtracting tree volume at the beginning and the end of the season. In addition, the total length of fibrous roots in 500 cm3 of soil samples was taken from the layers of 0–30 cm from the soil surface at the beginning of the experiment and then at the end of each season (December). Moreover, leaf area (cm2) was determined using disks of the leaf blades according to Bremner and Taha (1966).

Flowering and fruit set

Sixteen twigs per tree (four twigs on each side) had been chosen to collect the data. The number of leafy and leafless inflorescences per twig were counted and recorded, and then leafy inflorescences percentages were calculated according to the following equation: \({\text{Leafy inflorescences }}\left( {\text{\% }} \right){ } = 100 \times \frac{{\text{Leafy inflorescences }}}{{\text{Total inflorescences }}}\).

In addition, the total number of flowers per twig was counted and recorded at full bloom. At the same time, the numbers of set fruitlets per twig were counted and recorded after the fruit set stage. Finally, the fruit set percentage was calculated according to the following equation:\({\text{Fruit set }}\left( {\text{\% }} \right){ } = 100 \times \frac{{\text{Number of set fruitlet }}}{{\text{Number of total flowers }}}\).

Leaf photosynthetic pigments, proline, cell sap osmotic pressure, opened stomata percentage and leaf-bound water percentage

The photosynthetic pigment contents (mg/100 g of fresh weight) were determined in fresh samples of leaf blades collected in August, according to Von-Wettestein (1957). Moreover, the proline content of fresh leaves (µ moles/g fresh weight) was determined following the method adopted by Bates et al. (1973). The leaf osmotic pressure of the cell sap of leaf blades and leaf-bound water percentage were determined following the method of Gosov (1960). The total numbers of stomata and the number of opened stomata/cm2 of leaf area were determined using the method of Stino et al. (1974), and the percentage of opened stomata was calculated according to the following equation: \({\text{Opened stomata }} = 100 \times \frac{{\text{Number of opened stomata }}}{{\text{Number of total stomata }}}\).

Fruit physical properties

Samples of 32 fruits per replicate (16 fruits per tree) were randomly selected, and the studied parameters involved fruit weight (g) and juice volume.

Chemical constituents of the fruit juice

The following parameters were considered: total soluble solids percentage (TSS) was determined using a hand refractometer; total titratable acidity (g citric acid per 100 ml of juice) was determined by titration against 0.1 N sodium hydroxide in the presence of phenol phthalin as an indicator; values of the TSS/acid ratio were calculated; ascorbic acid content (mg per 100 ml of juice) was determined by titration against 2,6-dichlorophenol indophenol (mg per 100 ml) following the method illustrated in the AOAC (1985).

Yield, water use efficiency, and water unit return

The quantity of fruits collected from each tree at harvest (December) was tallied, the weight of all the fruits from each tree (kg) was determined and noted, and the hypothetical yield per feddan [based on 210 trees per feddan (4 × 5 m apart)] was computed.

Water use efficiency (WUE) values were calculated according to the following equation (Jensen 1983) WUE = \(\frac{{{\text{Yield}} \left( {{\text{kg}}\;{\text{ per}}\; {\text{feddan}}} \right)}}{{{\text{Seasonal}}\;{\text{ ET}} \left( {{\text{m}}^{3} {\text{per}} {\text{feddan}}} \right)}}\).

Water unit returns (WUR) were calculated according to the following equation: Water unit return = WUE × price of 1 kg orange (4 EGP).

Statistical analysis

The experimental design was a split-plot arrangement of a complete randomized block (factorial experiment with split-plot design) with three replicates and two trees for each replicate. The main plot contained three water irrigation levels (100, 75, and 50% of ETc), and the sub-plot comprised salicylic acid (control, 250, 500, and 750 ppm). The data obtained were statistically analyzed using the analysis of variance method as reported by Snedecor and Cochran (1980). The differences between means were differentiated by using Duncan's range test (Duncan 1955).

Results

The obtained data showed that salicylic acid treatments had a great effect on all morpho-phenological parameters displayed in Table 3 starting with tree canopy volume, leaf area, and leafy inflorescences percentage that are considered as a preliminary predictor of yield status, fruit set, and length of fibrous roots which also reflected in the increase in the number of fruits per tree.

Table 3 Water stress levels and salicylic acid concentrations influence on morpho-phenological (growth, fruit set, and number of fruits per tree) parameters of Washington navel orange trees (2021–2022 seasons)
Full size table

The highest significant value for tree canopy volume was 62.76 m3 with 100% of ETc, while the lowest significant value was 40.56 m3 with 50% of ETc. For salicylic acid (SA), the highest significant value for tree canopy was 55.80 m3 with SA 750 ppm, while the lowest significant value was 46.91 m3 with the control (SA 0 ppm); this came true in the two seasons. For the interaction between water rates and salicylic acid, the most significant treatments were 100% of ETc combined with SA 500 or 750 ppm, which gained 65.53 and 65.98 m3, respectively. Generally, leaf area, the total length of fibrous roots, leafy inflorescences percentage, and the fruit set percentage as well as the number of fruits per tree have the same trend as tree canopy volume; this came true in the two seasons.

The data in Table 4 demonstrate the role of salicylic acid treatments on water relations parameters such as leaf chlorophyll a, leaf chlorophyll b, leaf proline, leaf cell sap osmotic pressure, opened stomata percentage, and leaf-bound water content under water stress. Generally, chlorophyll a, leaf chlorophyll b, and opened stomata percentage parameters were increased when the water amount or salicylic acid concentrations increased. On the contrary, leaf proline, leaf cell sap osmotic pressure, and leaf-bound water content were decreased when the water amount increased at the same time they increased when salicylic acid concentrations decreased. This came true in both seasons.

Table 4 Water stress rates and salicylic acid concentrations influence on photosynthetic pigments and proline contents, cell sap osmotic pressure, opened stomata percentage and bound water content percentage of Washington navel orange leaves (2021–2022 seasons)
Full size table

Regarding, the highest significant value for leaf chlorophyll a was 0.224 (mg/100 g of leaf F. W.) with 100% of ETc, while the lowest significant value was 0.193 (mg/100 g of leaf F. W.) with 50% of ETc. For salicylic acid (SA), the highest significant values for leaf chlorophyll a were 0.215 and 0.212 (mg/100 g of leaf F. W.) with SA 750 and 500 ppm, respectively, while the lowest significant value was 0.202 (mg/100 g of leaf F. W.) with the control (SA 0 ppm); this came true in the two seasons. For the interaction between water rates and salicylic acid, there are no significant results through the treatments. The leaf chlorophyll b and opened stomata percentage parameters take the same trend as chlorophyll a; this came true in the two seasons.

In the conversed direction, the lowest significant value for leaf proline was 50.72 (µg/moles of leaf F. W.) with 100% of ETc, while the highest significant value was 118.72 (µg/moles of leaf F. W.) with 50% of ETc. For salicylic acid (SA), the lowest significant values for leaf proline were 68.65 (µg/moles of leaf F. W.) with SA 750 ppm, while the highest significant value was 96.93 (µg/ moles of leaf F. W.) with the control (SA 0 ppm); this came true in the two seasons. For the interaction between water rates and salicylic acid, the lowest significant value was 35.89 (µg/moles of leaf F. W.), which was gained by 100% of ETc combined with SA 750 ppm treatment. The leaf cell sap osmotic pressure and leaf-bound water content take the same trend to leaf proline; this came true in the two seasons.

Data presented in Table 5 show a strong effect of ETc treatments on all physical and chemical fruit parameters with significant differences in both seasons, while salicylic acid did not affect most of the parameters except TSS/acid ratio and Ascorbic acid.

Table 5 Water stress rates and salicylic acid concentrations influence on weight, juice volume, TSS, acidity, TSS/acid ratio and ascorbic acid of Washington navel orange fruits (2021–2022 seasons)
Full size table

The highest significant value for fruit weight was 327.59 g with 100% of ETc, while the lowest significant value was 289.32 g with 50% of ETc. For salicylic acid (SA), there is no effect of the salicylic acid application on all physical and chemical fruit parameters except TSS/acid ratio and Ascorbic acid. For the interaction between water rates and salicylic acid, the most significant treatments were 100% of ETc combined with SA 500 or 750 ppm, which gained 336.03 and 337.69 g, respectively.

Generally, most of all physical and chemical fruit parameters take the same trend to fruit weight except for TSS/acid ratio and Ascorbic acid. The TSS/acid ratio and ascorbic acid parameters effect by ETc or salicylic acid concentration, while the ascorbic acid parameter did not affect by the interaction between water rates and salicylic acid at all, but the TSS/acid ratio parameter was affected. This came true in the two seasons.

Data in Table 6 and Figs. 2, 3, 4 summarize the benefits of this study. The highest significant increment in hypothetical yield per feddan (ton/feddan) was gained by using 100% of ETc, which produced 10.20 tons/feddan, while 50% of ETc treatment recorded only 4.49 tons/feddan. For salicylic acid, the highest significant increment in hypothetical yield per feddan (ton/feddan) was gained by using salicylic acid treatment (SA 750 ppm), which produced 8.38 tons/feddan, while SA 0 ppm treatment (control) recorded only 6.11 tons/feddan. In addition, the interaction between water rates and salicylic acid showed that 100% of ETc combined with SA 500 or 750 ppm recorded 11.08 and 11.23 tons/feddan, and 100% of ETc combined with SA 0 ppm (control) produced 8.51 tons/feddan, which means that salicylic acid treatment increased yield about 31.96 and 31.19% by using the same amount of irrigation water; this trend was true in both seasons.

Table 6 Water stress rates and salicylic acid concentrations influence on tree yield, hypothetical yield per feddan, water use efficiency and water unit return of Washington navel orange trees (2021–2022 seasons)
Full size table
Fig. 2
figure 2

a–b Water stress rates and salicylic acid concentrations influence on hypothetical yield per feddan of Washington navel orange trees (2021–2022 seasons)

Full size image
Fig. 3
figure 3

a–b Water stress rates and salicylic acid concentrations influence on water use efficiency of Washington navel orange trees (2021–2022 seasons)

Full size image
Fig. 4
figure 4

a–b Water stress rates and salicylic acid concentrations influence on water unit return of Washington navel orange trees (2021–2022 seasons)

Full size image

With a more comprehensive view, these results cannot be evaluated without reference to WUE (water use efficiency—kg fruit/m3 water) and WUR (water unit return—EGP/m3 water) to translate these results economically as a monetary product of the water unit, so, if the results have generally shown the superiority of salicylic acid treatment in WUE and WUR but the interaction clarified that the salicylic acid treatment (750 ppm) combined with 75% of ETc was better than the control combined with 100% of ETc where the values recorded for 75% of ETc combined with salicylic acid treatments (750 ppm) were 2.27 and 3.09 for WUE and 9.06 and 12.38 for WUR while 100% of ETc combined with salicylic acid 0 ppm treatments (control) recorded 1.74 for WUE and 6.95 for WUR with obvious and high significant differences, it was better in water use efficiency and the economic return from using the water unit. This trend was also confirmed in the second season.

Discussion

Table 3 demonstrates that salicylic acid treatments significantly affected all of the morpho-phenological parameters beginning with tree canopy volume, leaf area, and the percentage of leafy inflorescences that are taken into consideration as a preliminary predictor of yield status, fruit set, and length of fibrous roots, which also manifested in an increase in the number of fruits per tree.

The highest significant value for tree canopy volume was gained by 100% of ETc, while the lowest significant value was gained by 50% of ETc. For salicylic acid (SA), the highest significant value for tree canopy was recorded by SA 750 ppm, while the lowest significant value was recorded by the control (SA 0 ppm); this came true in the two seasons.

For the interaction between water rates and salicylic acid, the most significant treatments were 100% of ETc combined with SA 500 or 750 ppm. Generally, leaf area, the total length of fibrous roots, leafy inflorescences percentage, and the fruit set percentage, as well as the number of fruits per tree have the same trend as tree canopy volume; this came true in the two seasons.

Particularly, the parameters were increased by increasing ETc rates possibly due to the increase in soil moisture availability, moderate evaporation from the soil surface, temperature, N, P, and K values (Kumar et al. 2014; Falivene et al. 2016; Mahmoud and Youssef 2017a, b; Mahmoud et al. 2018). Results regarding conserving water supply levels were in agreement with those mentioned by Mahmoud (2012), Mahmoud and Youssef (2017a, b), Mahmoud et al. (2018).

Moreover, it can be noticed that salicylic acid gained the highest significant values compared with the control. In this connection, this increase may be due to the role of salicylic acid in activating cell division, biosynthesis of organic foods, and availability as well as the movement of mineral nutrients toward the leaves (El-Shazly et al. 2015; Metwaly and El-Shatoury 2017). These results are agreeable with those reported by Yildirim et al. (2008), Ben Ahmed et al. (2009), Cornelia et al. (2010), El-Shazly et al. (2015), Khoshbakht and Asgharei (2015), Metwaly and El-Shatoury (2017), Zaky et al. (2018).

The data presented in Table 4 show how salicylic acid treatments affected water relations parameters like leaf chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, proline, osmotic pressure in leaf cell sap, the percentage of open stomata, and leaf-bound water content under water stress. In general, parameters measuring chlorophyll a, leaf chlorophyll b, and the percentage of opened stomata increased as water content or salicylic acid concentrations increased. On the contrary, leaf proline, leaf cell sap osmotic pressure, and leaf-bound water content were decreased when the water amount increased at the same time they increased when salicylic acid concentrations decreased. This came true in both seasons. The results presented in lead us to believe that the use of salicylic acid at the aforementioned concentrations reduced the harmful effects of lack of irrigation water supply on the plant, which in turn may give an economic crop despite the decrease in irrigation rates.

For water supply levels, the obtained results reveal that leaf photosynthetic pigments were affected significantly by water supply levels; this was in harmony with results found by XiaoLi et al. (2013), Malik et al. (2014), Mahmoud and Youssef (2017a, b), Mahmoud et al. (2018).

Regarding salicylic acid, our results are in agreement with those obtained by other researchers Purcarea and Cachita-Cosma (2011), El-Shazly et al. (2015), Khoshbakht and Asgharei (2015), Metwaly and El-Shatoury (2017).

Moreover, according to Noreen and Ashraf (2008), Metwaly and El-Shatoury (2017) the influence of salicylic acid is due to activating changes in photosynthesis, antioxidant capacity, and ion homeostasis processes.

Data presented in Table 5 demonstrate a significant difference between the two seasons in the effects of ETc treatments on some fruit parameters, while salicylic acid had little effect on most parameters other than TSS/acid ratio and ascorbic acid. The highest significant value for fruit weight was gained by 100% of ETc, while the lowest significant value was gained by 50% of ETc. For salicylic acid (SA), there is no effect of the salicylic acid application on all physical and chemical fruit parameters except TSS/acid ratio and ascorbic acid. For the interaction between water rates and salicylic acid, the most significant treatments were 100% of ETc combined with SA 500 or 750 ppm, respectively. Generally, most of all physical and chemical fruit parameters take the same trend to fruit weight except for TSS/acid ratio and ascorbic acid. The TSS/acid ratio and ascorbic acid parameters effect by ETc or salicylic acid concentration, while the ascorbic acid parameter did not affect by the interaction between water rates and salicylic acid at all, but the TSS/acid ratio parameter was affected. This came true in the two seasons. For water supply levels, the results of the present investigation confirmed those obtained by Treeby et al. (2007), Mahmoud (2012), XiaoLi et al. (2013), Malik et al. (2014), ShenXi et al. (2016), Mahmoud and Youssef (2017a, b), Mahmoud et al. (2018).

Data in Table 6 and Figs. 2, 3, 4 summarize the benefits of this study. The use of 100% ETc resulted in the greatest significant increase in hypothetical yield per feddan, whereas the use of salicylic acid at 750 ppm resulted in the greatest significant increase in hypothetical yield per feddan. Also, water rates and salicylic acid interaction revealed that 100% of ETc combined with SA 500 or 750 ppm recorded the highest significant increment. This trend held true in both seasons.

The results have generally demonstrated the superiority of salicylic acid treatment in WUE and WUR, and the interaction clarified that the salicylic acid treatment (750 ppm) combined with 75% of ETc was better than the control combined with 100% of ETc, and it was better in water use efficiency and the economic return from using the water unit. Finally, it could be possible to say that salicylic acid treatment achieved what is targeted for citrus in SADS (Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategy toward 2030) by reducing the amount of water used to irrigate citrus orchards by a rate ranging from 25%, in the same time increased the water unit return (WUR).

Results of the present investigation revealed that yield characteristics were affected significantly by water supply levels. This work agrees with Mahmoud (2012), Melgar et al. (2012), Dorji et al. (2016), Falivene et al. (2016) on citrus trees.

This result may be due to using a high water irrigation supply, which may have increased soil moisture availability (Koshita and Takahara 2004; Falivene et al. 2016; Mahmoud and Youssef 2017a, b). This increase in yield might be due to the effect of water on some metabolic processes in the plant cell. Besides, the increase in soil moisture might have increased soil available N, K, and P as well as their uptake in the zone of roots, as well as enhanced photosynthetic processes, carbohydrates production, and yield (Ghosh et al. 2000; Ahmed and Abd El-Kader 2016).

Regarding water salicylic acid treatment, our results are in harmony with those observed by Mohamed et al. (2017), García-Pastor et al. (2020), Chakma et al. (2021).

Conclusions

In summary, from the results of the present study, it can be concluded that using salicylic acid treatment had a high economic return through increasing total yield, water use efficiency, and water unit return (WUR) which reached 9.06 and 12.38 EGP per every cubic meter of irrigation water in the first and the second seasons, respectively, for 75% of ETc combined with salicylic acid 750 ppm and using less water irrigation amount by 25% at the same time. Thus, we recommend applying the treatment of 75% of ETc combined with salicylic acid 750 ppm to Washington navel orange trees budded on sour orange rootstock to gain a high economic return.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Notes

  1. Feddan = (0.42 hectare).

Abbreviations

EGP:

Egyptian pound

ETc:

Estimated crop water requirement

ETo:

Reference crop evapotranspiration rate

FAO:

Food and Agriculture Organization

Kc:

Crop coefficient

Kg:

Kilogram

Ppm:

Parts per million

SA:

Salicylic acid

WUE:

Water use efficiency

WUR:

Water unit returns

References

  • Abd-El Aziz RA (2004) Effect of some irrigation treatments on the physiological activities of Balady orange trees. Doctor of Philosophy Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University

  • Admasu W, Tadesse K, Hordofa T, Habte D (2014) Sensitivity analysis of climatic parameters on Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) calculated by FAO Penman—Monteith Equation (CROPWAT MODEL 80) for Sub-humid to humid areas of Arsi Zone. Ethiop Int J Agric Sci Res 3(4):039–051

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed MEM, Abd El-Kader NI (2016) The influence of magnetic water and water regimes on soil salinity, growth, yield and tubers quality of potato plants. Middle East J Agric Res 5(2):132–143

    Google Scholar 

  • AOAC (1985) Official methods of analysis of the association of official agriculture chemists. 13th Ed. Benjamin Franklin Station, Washington, D. C., B. O. Box, 450

  • Bates LS, Walren RR, Tears ID (1973) Rapid determination of proline for water stress studies. Plant Soil 39(1):205–207

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ben Ahmed H, Farouk A, Arafet M, Hajer M, Ezz-elddine Z (2009) Salicylic acid induced changes on some physiological parameters in tomato grown under salinity. Proceedings of the International Plant Nutrition Colloquium XVI. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5j07c5vj

  • Bremner PM, Taha MA (1966) Studies in potato agronomy 1: the effects of variety, seed size and spacing on growth, development and yield. J Agric Sci 66(1):241–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chakma R, Saekong P, Biswas A, Ullah A (2021) Foliar application and seed priming of salicylic acid affect growth, fruit yield, and quality of grape tomato under drought stress. Sci Hortic 280(5):109904

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cornelia P, Cachita D, Petrus A, Pop L, Chis A (2010) Involvement of salicylic acid on some biochemical parameters amelioration in salt stressed wheat (Triticum aestivum cv Crisana) plantlets. Analele Universităţii Din Oradea, Fascicula: Protecţia Mediului 15(1):166–170

    Google Scholar 

  • CROPWAT (2012) A computer program for irrigation planning and management. https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/cropwat/en

  • Dorji K, Lakey L, Chophel S, Dorji SD, Tamang B (2016) Adoption of improved citrus orchard management practices: a micro study from Drujegang growers, Dagana. Bhutan Agric Food Secur 5(3):1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncan DB (1955) Multiple range and multiple “F” tests. Biometrics 11(1):1–42

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • El-Shazly SM, Khalil HA, Abd El-Hamed SF (2015) Effect of salicylic acid on growth and physiological status of salt stressed sour orange seedlings (Citrus aurantium L.). Alex J Agric Res 60(3):229–239

    Google Scholar 

  • Falivene S, Giddings J, Skewes M (2016) Managing citrus orchards with less water. Primefact 427 Second edition

  • García-Pastor ME, Zapata PJ, Castillo S, Martínez-Romero D, Guillén F, Valero D, Serrano M (2020) The effects of salicylic acid and its derivatives on increasing pomegranate fruit quality and bioactive compounds at harvest and during storage. Front Plant Sci 11(668):1–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh SG, Asanuma K, Kusutani A, Toyota M (2000) Effect of moisture stress at different growth stages on the amount of total nonstructural carbohydrate, nitrate reeducates activity and yield of potato. Jpn J Tropic Agric 44(3):158–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Gosov NA (1960) Some methods in studying plant water relations. leningrad. Academy of Science, USSR

  • Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (2019) Indicator Description: Calculating of irrigation water quantities used in three crops lugs or fruits. https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/IndicatorsPage.aspx?page_id=6151&ind_id=2361

  • Jensen ME (1983) Design and operation of farm irrigation systems. American Society Agriculture Engineers, Michigan

    Google Scholar 

  • Khoshbakht D, Asgharei MR (2015) Influence of foliar-applied salicylic acid on growth, gas-exchange characteristics, and chlorophyll fluorescence in citrus under saline conditions. Photosynthetica 35(3):410–418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koshita Y, Takahara T (2004) Effect of water stress on flower-bud formation and plant hormone content of satsuma mandarin (Citrus unshiu Marc). Sci Hortic 99(4):301–307

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar V, Singh VB, Anka SP, Shalikhajuria (2014) Effect of various mulches on soil moisture content, soil properties, growth and yield of Kinnow under rainfed condition. Int J Agric Sci 10(1):225–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahmoud TA, Youssef EA (2017a) Effect of partial root-zone drying drip irrigation system on Valencia orange trees. Ann Agric Sci Moshtohor J 55(1):101–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahmoud TA, Youssef EA (2017b) Water deficiency and mulching effects on Valencia orange trees. Ann Agric Sci Moshtohor J 55(1):113–127

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahmoud TA, Youssef EA, El-harouny SB, Abo-Eid MAM (2018) Effect of magnetized water and different levels of water supply on growth and yield of navel orange trees. J Hortic Sci Ornam Plants 10(3):118–128

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahmoud TA (2012) Effect of some irrigation and growth regulator treatments on growth and fruiting of Washington navel orange trees. Doctor of Philosophy Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, 208.

  • Malik NSA, Perez JL, Kunta M, Patt JM, Mangan RL (2014) Changes in free amino acids and polyamine levels in Satsuma leaves in response to Asian citrus psyllid infestation and water stress. Insect Sci 21(6):707–716

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melgar JC, Albrigo LG, Syvertsen JP (2012) Winter drought stress can delay flowering and avoid immature fruit loss during late-season mechanical harvesting of Valencia oranges. Acta Hortic 965(1):55–60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metwaly EE, El-Shatoury RS (2017) Impact of foliar application with salicylic acid on growth and yield of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) under different irrigation water quantity. J Plant Prod Mansoura Univ 10(8):969–977

    Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Agriculture (2022) Statistics of fruit production in Egypt

  • Mohamed RA, Abdelbaset A, Abd-Elkader DY (2017) Salicylic acid effects on growth, yield, and fruit quality of strawberry cultivars. J Med Act Plants 6(2):1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Noreen S, Ashraf M (2008) Alleviation of adverse effects of salt stress on sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) by exogenous application of salicylic acid: growth and photosynthesis. Pak J Bot 40(4):1657–1663

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panigrahi P, Strivastava AK (2011) Deficit irrigation (DI) scheduling for mature Nagpur mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) trees of central India. Indian J Soil Conservation 39(2):149–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Purcarea C, Cachita-Cosma D (2011) Salicylic acid involvement in salt stress alleviation in wheat (Triticum aestivum cv Crisana) seedlings. Studia Universitatis Vasile Goldis: Seria Stiintele Vietii 21(3):607–614

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Romero P, Navarro JM, Perez-Perez J, Garcia-Sanchez F, Gomez-Gomez A, Por-Ras I, Martinez V, Botia P (2006) Deficit irrigation and rootstock: their effects on water relations, vegetative development, yield, fruit quality and mineral nutrition of Clemenules mandarin. Tree Physiol 26(1):1537–1548

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saxena R, Kumar M, Jyoti A, Tomar RS (2019) Untapped potential of salicylic acid, jasmonic acid and PGPRS to develop abiotic stress resilience in crop plants. Curr Trends Biotechnol Pharm 13(4):376–390

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ShenXi X, XiaoLi Z, XiaoPeng L, ChengNeng H, YuMing X, Jing L (2016) Effect of water stress on citrus physiological characteristics, jasmine acid biosynthesis and correlative gene expression. Acta Horticu Sci 1112(1):247–253

    Google Scholar 

  • Snedecor GW, Cochran WG (1980) Statistical methods. Oxford and J. B. H. Publishing Co. 7th Ed. lowa State University, Press, Am., Lowa

  • Stino GR, El-Azzouni MM, Abdalla KM, Mohsen AM (1974) Varietal studies in relation to zone of plantation in ARE. Egypt J Horticu 1(2):145–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Treeby MT, Henriod RE, Bevington KB, Milne DJ, Storey R (2007) Irrigation management and rootstock effects on navel orange [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck] fruit quality. Agricu Water Manag 19(1–3):24–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turell FM (1965) Comparative nocturnal thermal budgets of large and small citrus trees. Ecology 46(1):25–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Von-Wettestein D (1957) Chlorophyll Lethal und Submikroskopischefromivechsel der Plastiden Exptl. Cell Res 12(1):427–433

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wassel AH, Ahmed FF, Ragab MA, Ragab MM (2007) Response of Balady mandarin trees to drip irrigation and nitrogen fertigation. In: 8th African crop science society conference, El-Minia, vol. 37(31), pp 503–511

  • XiaoLi Z, XiaoPeng L, Qiong N, ChengNeng H, YuMing X, ShenXi X (2013) Effect of water stress on physiological characteristics, JA biosynthesis and correlative genes expression in citrus. Acta Agricu Univ Jiangxiensis 35(3):530–535

    Google Scholar 

  • Yildirim E, Turan M, Guvenc I (2008) Effect of foliar salicylic acid applications on growth, chlorophyll, and mineral content of cucumber grown under salt stress. J Plant Nutr 31(1):593–612

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zaky IF, Abu Leila B, Abdel Hamid N, El-Wakeel H (2018) Effect of foliar application of antioxidants on vegetative growth and leaf mineral content of Chinese tangerine young trees budded on some citrus rootstocks grown under saline conditions. Arab Univ J Agricu Sci 26(2):459–472

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Funding

The authors didn’t receive any financial support for this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Water Relations and Field Irrigation Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt

    Ebtessam A. Youssef

  2. Citrus Department, Horticulture Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza, Egypt

    Tarek A. Mahmoud & Manal A. M. Abo-Eid

Authors
  1. Ebtessam A. Youssef
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tarek A. Mahmoud
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Manal A. M. Abo-Eid
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

EA, TA, and MA performed the investigations. EA, TA, and MA contributed in writing the original data including analysis and interpretation. EA, TA, and MA performed the editing of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ebtessam A. Youssef.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Youssef, E.A., Mahmoud, T.A. & Abo-Eid, M.A.M. Effect of foliar application of different concentrations of salicylic acid on Washington navel orange trees under water stress. Bull Natl Res Cent 47, 98 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-023-01068-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-023-01068-z

Keywords