Fig. 3

Changes in morphology and function of astrocytes after neuroinflammation. A section: Based on the phenotypic changes of astrocytes, astrocytes are converted into reactive astrocytes, and their function is changed. Functional changes: (1) Atrophy with loss of function; (2) Pathological reconstruction; and (3) Reactive astrogliosis. B, E section: Activated astrocytes can be classified as A1 and A2 astrocytes. Astrocyte phenotypic differentiation may result in either a pro-inflammatory phenotype (A1) contributing to inflammation and neuronal death or an anti-inflammatory phenotype (A2) promoting neuronal survival and functional recovery. C, D section: These stimuli will likely promote divergent microglia phenotypes, such as the pro-inflammatory phenotype M1, which can have neurotoxic effects. M1 microglia secrete several pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF-α, complement proteins, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Anti-inflammatory M2 Microglia is believed to be neuroprotective in nature. They secrete several cytokines and growth factors, such as IL-10, TGF-β, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and arginase-1 (Arg-1). Image created in BioRender.com.