Table 1 Sample endocrine disruptors; their sources and pathways of exposure

Triclosan

Tooth paste, Hand soaps and cosmetics

Dermal contact through application of makeups and hand soaps

Blinkhorn et al. (2009)

Ingestion through brushing of teeth

Cullinan et al. (2012)

2, 4 dichlorophenol

Pesticides; pharmaceutics, metallurgic, and textile industry; chlorination of drinking water and wastewater

Can be ingested from contaminated water, or pharmaceutics

Kurnik et al. (2018)

Through ingesting crops sprayed with the chemical

Ali et al. (2020)

Dermal contact due to application of anti-septic, or through wearing textile products where traces of the chemical are found

2, 5 dichlorophenol

Room and toilet deodorizers; moth balls and insecticidal fumigant, pesticides and preservatives

Through dermal contact by applying room and toilet deodorizers

Honda and Kannan (2018)

Inhalation when used as pesticides

(Bethea et al. 2020)

Eating or applying creams containing such chemical

Monoethyl phthalates

Foods and beverages, and personal care products such as perfumes; wall coverings, toys, indoor dust

Can enter human system through food ingestion

Bu et al. (2018)

Indoor dust ingestion contaminated with the chemical

Zhu et al. (2019)

Inhalation of perfumes and other PCPs containing the chemical

Methyl and propyl parabens

Food/beverages; preservative in several consumer products including cosmetics, personal care products such as deodorants, makeups and hair care products, and medicinal products

Dermal contact through cosmetics application

Elmore et al., (2020)

Direct ingestion through eating contaminated foods and water

Mulla et al. (2015)

Butyl parabens

Cosmetics and pharmaceuticals

Through ingestion of drugs contacts extracts of the chemical

Calafat et al. (2010)

Inhalation of perfumes containing traces of the chemical

Moos et al. (2017)

Dermal contact through application of facial creams and body lotions

Oishi (2004)

Bisphenol A (BPA)

Baby and Water bottles, personal care products and canned foods

Through ingestion of water containing traces of these chemicals and canned food consumption

Liu et al. (2018)

Z. Wang et al. (2017)

Di-ethylstilbestrol (DES)

Baby and water bottles and as animal growth stimulant in terrestrial livestock and aquaculture, rivers and fisheries waters

Through ingestion of water containing fragments of these chemicals

Ding et al. (2020)

Eating fishes contaminated with the chemical

Li et al. (2019)

W. Liu et al. (2018)

2-ethylhexyl phthalates

Medical tubing, surgical gloves, dialysis equipment, hair sprays, perfumes, pesticides, adhesives and lubricants

Exposure routes ranges from inhaling related perfumes to;

Rattan and Flaws (2019)

Dermal contacts through wearing surgical gloves, medical tubing, and dialysis equipment

Rocha et al. (2017)

Y. Wang et al. (2019)

Formaldehyde

Cosmetics; food, water, clothing and building materials

Through inhalation of air contaminated with it

Salthammer (2019)

Dermal contacts by wearing textile products containing traces of the chemical

Wannaz et al. (2018)

Eating of food contaminated with the chemical

Benzophenone-3

Cosmetics and other personal care products; sunscreens, clothing

Inhalation of body perfumes

Iribarne-Durán et al. (2020)

Dermal contacts through wearing sunscreens

Mínguez-Alarcón et al. (2019)

Mercury, mercuric chloride, lead, cadmium, etc.

Pomades and skin lightening body, facial lotions, toothpaste, lipsticks and eye makeup

Through skin bleaching using hydroquinone related pomades

Ababneh and Al-Momani (2018)

Through ingestion by using toothpaste that contains the chemical

Khalili et al. (2019)

Methoxychlor

Pesticides

Through eating vegetables contaminated with related pesticides

Abbasi and Mannaerts (2020)

Frankel et al. (2020)

Dicholorodiethyltricholoroethene (DDT)

Pesticides

Eating fishes that were harvested through DDT

Cirillo et al. (2021)

Consuming food crops containing these chemicals

Mansouri et al. (2017)